The book explores several topics, such as: defining Indigenous / local communities, economic and institutional profiles, problems and challenges facing Indigenous peoples, agrarian (land-based) bias, empowerment gaps, and roadmaps towards indigenous / local community empowerment. It is hoped that the publication of this book can provide an overview of the condition and existence of Indigenous and tribal peoples in Indonesia, especially in small islands, in order to maintain its sustainability. Currently the book is in Indonesian, however, those interested in the book can visit: https://kompas.id/gerai/belanja/buku/laut-dan-masyarakat-adat/

Book Review Event of “Sea and Indigenous People”

The launching of this book was attended by a number of stakeholders such as the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Ministry of Social Affairs, Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of Village, Ministry of Bappenas, and a number of international and local NGOs. Dr. Arif Satria explained that the writing of this book became the foundation for the dissemination of the discourse of coastal and marine resource management based on indigenous peoples found in this research. National policies that have made room for the implementation of community resource management practices should be welcomed with innovative research to formulate effective and sustainable policy and action plans.

This book has been adopted as a basis in formulating policies and action plans for the empowerment of indigenous peoples who inhabit small islands by the Directorate of Coastal and Small Island Utilization, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries of the Republic of Indonesia. The parties commit to continue similar research for other indigenous communities, and will use the SES approach (social ecological system) as the main approach of research. It is expected that appropriate coastal and marine resource management models will surface and will be implemented in indigenous communities in Indonesia.

Information in this post, and all images, were provided by CCRN Researcher Ahmad Mony.

The second half of the session was an audience-participation dialogue focusing on reflection, analysis and distilling key lessons learned, with 36 participants sharing perspectives and questions about community-led transformation. This discussion was supplemented by an online survey ran prior to the conference, using Sli.do an audience interaction software. Responses from participants highlighted the key role of local leadership and innovation (63% of respondents), facing common challenges (46%), participatory engagement (46%) and government support (42%) in achieving successful transformations, in addition to a variety of other elements.

This wordcloud image shows keywords that participants associated with transformation.

Session Abstracts 

How can an introduced species contribute to conservation and sustainable livelihoods? The case of paiche fisheries in the Bolivian Amazon.
Alison Macnaughton, University of Victoria, Canada

The Northern Bolivian Amazon is currently experiencing a variety of human and environmental pressures, including urban development, large infrastructure projects, extreme climate events and species introduction. While indigenous peoples hold rights to extensive territories in the region, the development and implementation of governance structures and processes (including natural resource management) within these territories has been limited to date. Recently there has been interest expressed at a variety of levels (communities, government, NGOs) in developing new commercial fishery opportunities based on the introduced paiche fish (Arapaima gigas), which is increasing in abundance and of high commercial value in regional markets. This paper examines the current and potential future role of fishing in indigenous communities as it relates to broader processes of transition and transformation in livelihoods and governance in the region. It includes the results from a study that was carried out in 4 Indigenous Territories in Beni Department, Bolivia between October – November 2015. Results of the study confirm that while subsistence fishing is extensive, with native species as a central part of local diets, the selling of fish is less common, and generally a secondary source of income. Participation in paiche fisheries is very limited among indigenous communities. Many communities face significant problems of food insecurity, poverty and associated environmental and social vulnerability including a significant lack of access to basic services such as health, clean water, transportation access and more. In this context the demand for local projects and income-generating initiatives is high, but the success of initiatives to date has been limited. If paiche fishery development is to be successful, it must be aligned with strategies to address the multiple dimensions of poverty and vulnerability in a more meaningful way. This paper proposes a preliminary framework to examine some of the dynamics of governance and livelihoods transformations, with a focus on fisheries as part of integrated poverty reduction initiatives.

Can secure tenure act as a measure of conservation and governance success in lagoon-based small-scale fishery social-ecological systems?
Prateep Nayak, Faculty of Environment, School of Environment, Enterprise and Development, University of Waterloo, Canada

This paper begins by confirming that issues around tenure within lagoon-based small-scale fishery social-ecological systems have largely been neglected. Despite a growing body of literature on lagoon commons and property rights systems, existing literature on marine and terrestrial tenure tend to subsume tenure issues of coastal lagoons. Lack of specific attention to lagoon tenure can potentially affect their long-term sustainability, undermine ongoing efforts of community-based conservation and further marginalize small-scale fishers that have depended on them for generations. This paper identifies important challenges associated with lagoon tenure in relation to the implementation of the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication, 2015 (FAO SSF Guidelines), particularly focusing on its provisions for responsible governance of tenure. It highlights that secure tenure rights form the basis of social, economic, ecological and cultural wellbeing of small-scale fishing communities. To this effect, the paper sets forth some of the key conditions for governance of tenure in the context of lagoon small-scale fisheries social ecological systems through an extensive treatment of a broad range of fishers’ rights and multi actor responsibilities. Fisher experiences with the impacts of ongoing rapid social-ecological changes and community responses in Chilika Lagoon, Bay of Bengal, India are used as a case. Additional data comes from a series of workshops, meetings, and consultations with smallscale fishers and other stakeholders in Chilika. Important lessons for governance of lagoon tenure are examined in relation to resource systems, resource sectors, and user-level dynamics to offer insights on the specific characteristics of lagoon small-scale fisheries tenure and possible directions for conservation and governance.

Continue reading  to learn more about Furqan’s thesis “Leaving the coast: the interplay of migration, well-being and resilience in Cambodian coastal fishing communities” and the insights he gained while completing his PhD. The interview is also available in audio format, click play on the recording below to listen to Furqan’s Interview.

Furqan Asif is a PhD candidate in International Development at the University of Ottawa

What is the topic you are addressing in your thesis?

The landscape, both socially and ecologically, of coastal fishing communities in many parts of the world is rapidly changing, particularly in Southeast Asia. On the social side, migration by individuals from coastal communities to cities in pursuit of economic opportunities is affecting community dynamics. Ecologically, environmental degradation, overexploitation of fish stocks and climate change are negatively affecting species’ abundance and diversity, thereby straining livelihoods and exacerbating poverty. These trends are particularly pronounced in the small-scale fishing communities of Cambodia, a country which boasts, by some estimates, the highest fish consumption in the region. Coastal Cambodia is an ideal case to analyze and understand the dynamics that influence social-ecological change given the rapid shifts occurring as a result of emerging economic opportunities (i.e. increasing connectivity, and resultant migration to secondary cities) and rapid economic growth, in the context of declining natural resources and environmental change. Specifically, my research seeks to understand a) the role migration plays as a livelihood strategy in Cambodian fishing communities; b) how migration affects social well-being of fishers and their households (within and beyond coastal villages); and c) if a social wellbeing analysis of migration can contribute to an improved understanding of the “social” in social-ecological resilience.

Shrimp are laid out to dry in a coastal fishing village (Koh Kong, Cambodia).

What led you to become interested in this field?

My interest in this field can be traced back to a decade ago when I became introduced to interdisciplinary work, starting with my undergraduate minor in Environmental Science (my Master degree was also in the same field). Environmental Science involves a variety of disciplines (e.g. environmental chemistry, earth science, environmental risk, etc.) so it allowed me to get a very comprehensive understanding of environmental challenges while understanding large-scale environmental processes. As a result of this specialization, I eventually found my niche in applying what I had learned in the context of international development while working in the Canadian government, and then later, internationally in the Philippines, and most recently with the United Nations.

While I developed understanding on the environmental side, I wanted to get the same within international development so I chose to pursue my PhD in this field. Like Environmental Science, the field of international development also involves a variety of disciplines (e.g. international relations, economics, political science, anthropology, etc.) so it was a natural fit.

As I was developing my doctoral research proposal, I became really interested in the area of social-ecological systems which emphasized the importance of looking at social and ecological systems as interconnected and that in order to get a holistic understanding, you have to look at both. The concept also bridged the natural sciences with social sciences and, on a pedagogical and epistemological level, it was something that I was seeking to do (as well as on a personal level), so I found myself strongly attracted to it. Later on, I was introduced to the concept of resilience which is linked to the literature on social-ecological systems (captured by the term social-ecological resilience), and this became the conceptual launchpad for my doctoral thesis.

A fisherman prepares one of 600 crab traps with bait before going out to sea to set them at a coastal fishing village in Koh Kong, Cambodia. Fishermen have had to increase fishing effort i.e. number of traps over the years as marine resources have declined.

What excites you about the work you did for your thesis?

What’s exciting about the work is that there have been significant changes in coastal Cambodia, even in the last five to ten years, particularly with the opening of the Special Economic Zone near the Thai border, which has drawn thousands of Cambodians – many from the coastal villages. So this represents a major shift in the socioeconomic landscape in this part of Cambodia, which itself is set amongst the backdrop of ecological change i.e. declines in fish catch and overall negative impacts on marine resources as a result of environmental change. Understanding the effect that these changes will have, and are having, on small-scale coastal fishing communities therefore becomes important.

A family in a coastal fishing village sort through and process their catch (Koh Kong, Cambodia).

Did you run into any difficulties during your studies? If so, how did you address them?

Of course! One of the first challenges I had was when my research assistant abruptly quit about two months after the start of my fieldwork. That was completely unexpected and, needless to say, put a halt to interviews, field visits, etc. While it was stressful, I managed to address it by focusing on using my network and social media to put out a call for another research assistant. After a month of soliciting (and waiting), I managed to find someone else who turned out to be very reliable and excellent.

Another difficulty was finding a boat driver to take us to the fishing communities which were on mangrove-enclosed islands (about a 40 minute journey over the ocean). We had no prior contacts or connections so my research assistant and I went to the small port where we knew boats arrived from the islands and inquired to get advice. From this, we were able to get a few phone numbers and get a boat hire. Later on when we were in a similar situation where our previous boat hire was unavailable, my assistant had the idea of going to the nearby fishing village in town and knocking on houses to find someone, which proved successful.

How does your research affect the community you worked with?

This is a question that is pondered by most graduate students and is a difficult one to answer. On the one hand, it is difficult to have a concrete answer while doing fieldwork because you are still discovering and have yet to establish findings and insights. On the other, the nature of the research and how connected it is to the everyday realities of the community you’re working with will determine how they will be affected by it.

In my case, what I can say is that I hope that my research gets in the right hands and draws the spotlight on these communities which have often been overlooked but nevertheless face many challenges to their livelihoods. To this end, I will have an active dissemination strategy so that more resources and attention can be paid to the coastal communities.

Children in a coastal fishing village playing a board game (Koh Kong, Cambodia).

How does your research contribute to your field?

It will contribute on two fronts, on the theoretical and practical. Until recently, work on resilience has traditionally been biased towards the ecological with social aspects left relatively under-addressed. Using a mix of qualitative methods, my research draws on the social well-being approach to operationalize resilience and contribute to the understanding of social resilience for small-scale coastal fishing communities in Cambodia.

On the practical front, my research is aiming to get a better understanding of the role migration plays as a livelihood strategy in Cambodian fishing communities and how it affects their social wellbeing.

What do you think are the next steps for learning more about the topics you are addressing in your thesis?

For those that want to learn more about coastal fishing communities in Cambodia, I would highly recommend my supervisor’s book Life, Fish and mangroves which you can read for free via a link from her website: http://melissamarschke.weebly.com/book.html

For more information on  Furqan Asif’s work visit his website: www.furqanasif.com

A fisherman lays out his traps in a coastal fishing village (Koh Kong, Cambodia).

View the complete CCRN’s São Luiz Community Story as a PDF

Camila A. Islas, Alice R. de Moraes, Juliana S. African & Cristiana S. Seixas

Key Messages

• Severe land degradation and environmental disasters can act as triggers to new community conservation and development initiatives and as stimulus to existing ones.
• Bridging organizations can foster community initiatives through projects addressing environmental conservation and restoration in parallel to local capacity building and community development.
• Cultural identity plays a central role in engaging communities in projects of nature conservation.

Community Profile

São Luiz do Paraitinga (hereafter São Luiz) is a municipality with about 10,000 inhabitants, located in Eastern São Paulo State of Brazil, near the Atlantic coast (Figure 1). The municipality is situated within the Paraíba Valley, which links the two largest metropolitan areas in Brazil (São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro). Out of the ~730 km² of the municipality’s area, 10% are encompassed by Serra do Mar State Park, a protected area, and 13% are in its buffer zone. The main land uses/cover are pasture (53%) and fragmented forests (37%), while cattle breeding for dairy, forestry and agriculture are the main economic activities⁽²⁾. The municipality is also embedded in the Atlantic Forest biome – a hotspot for biodiversity conservation, i.e. one of the highly threatened biomes in the world⁽⁵⁾.

Figure 1. A) The State of São Paulo highlighted in the Brazilian map. B) São Luíz do Paraitinga Municipality highlighted in the State of São Paulo map.

The landscape of São Luiz has been shaped by specific material and immaterial cultural features that were strongly influenced by coffee plantations from the early 20^th century and by the Caipira way of life, a local designation to a rural livelihood which involves typical food, music, tales, dances and festivities (see Figure 2).

The city’s architectural ensemble is the largest historical collection of the State’s architectural heritage, and its population proudly keeps alive several displays of immaterial culture⁽³⁾. The local economy currently depends on public services, and the Human Development Index (HDI = 0.690) is among the lowest of the State’s municipalities. In this context, cultural tourism and eco-tourism are promising alternatives for economic development.

Rural communities in Brazil are important SES, specifically in south-eastern states such as São Paulo, where landscapes are highly fragmented and urbanised. Landscapes there sometimes have patches of native vegetation that are especially important to wild animals, serving as habitat and ‘stepping-stones’, which generate various ecosystem services and are also home to human communities and their livelihoods⁽³⁾. The vast majority of rural properties (96%) in the municipality of São Liuz are owned by smallholders⁽²⁾.

In this context lies Catuçaba, a rural district in São Luiz comprising a village with around 1,000 inhabitants and its surrounding rural neighbourhoods. Most inhabitants make their living from small-scale animal husbandry and other smallholding activities⁽³⁾.

Figure 2: Traditional dance presentation at the central square, in front of the main church, during the festivity of the Holy Spirit in São Luiz do Paraitinga, 2016.

Until a few decades ago, the village was partially isolated from the urban center due to poor road access. However, the road connecting the village to downtown was paved by the year 2000, facilitating outsiders’ access and products transportation, and improving the access of villagers and rural inhabitants to infrastructure, education and health. Tourism-related activities have been modestly flourishing in the territory, supported by its beautiful landscape, pleasant climate and historical farms.

Conservation and Livelihood Challenges

Land degradation is longstanding in the region. Agriculture has been practiced since the settlement of the first colonisers in the late 17^th century, in spite of the hilly landscape and low nutrient availability and permeability of the soil⁽²⁾. Economic cycles (cotton, coffee, agriculture and cattle), along with poor soil management techniques, contributed to land degradation, impoverishing the soil, and most recently covering the land with Brachiaria, an invasive exotic grass that feeds the cattle and worsens soil permeability. As a result, cattle productivity has declined and many landowners fell back on other activities to complete their income.

Meanwhile, due to the promises of better job and education opportunities in urban centres, rural out-migration hampered the availability of rural workers and lowered social cohesion. Currently, land degradation in such social context threaten most of the traditional livelihoods.

On January 1st, 2010, São Luiz suffered from a flood of great magnitude, when the river crossing the downtown area raised over 11 meters above its regular level in a matter of hours, largely damaging the historical buildings and affecting the whole population, both urban and rural. Fortunately, there were no fatalities. Other than the high precipitation registered in end-2009, this flood was caused by factors linked to land degradation in rural areas, such as soil compaction in degraded and poorly managed pastures, fires commonly used to clear land, scarcity of forests near watercourses, and human occupation of floodplains.

Community Initiatives^*

In the face of the disaster’s intensity and tremendous material losses, the population of São Luiz showed a remarkable capacity to self-organize in order to cope with the emergency situation and, later, to rebuild and restore the functioning of the city⁽⁵⁾. Since the floods, the territory as a whole has been targeted by diverse projects focusing on forest restoration, agro-ecological production and capacity building.

The 2010 disaster stimulated new and ongoing community initiatives, mostly with the help of local and regional NGOs and government organizations. During the post-disaster reorganization phase, the community actively participated in decisions regarding the reconstruction of historical buildings and other issues. In addition to engineering work conducted at the government initiative, most post-disaster initiatives focused on keeping the vibrancy of local cultural manifestations⁽⁵⁾.

Figure 3: The scenic landscape around Catuçaba district: degraded pastures and patches of biodiversity-rich Atlantic forest covering its hills and valleys.

The community also showed a remarkable sense of place and attachment to both São Luiz, similarly to Catuçaba and its surrounding area (Figure 3). The tragedy seems to have reinforced this sense of place and local people’s capacities of coping and recovering their community life with their own hands, and at the same time acknowledging and being grateful for all the solidarity and help they received from external people and institutions⁽⁵⁾.

One of these community initiatives working to improve conservation and livelihoods was the Comunidade da Vila (Village Community). In 2012, the Learning Community initiative began in Catuçaba. The main goal of the project was to promote an environment for reflection about nature conservation and local development, and to facilitate the planning of collective actions^(1,3). Together with local people, the initiative planned and organised several cultural events and community actions over three years⁽¹⁾. Although the project ended in 2015, the community continued to meet until 2017, focusing on a street market with local products, tourism-related activities and festivities ^(3).

A local NGO, Akarui, has been developing projects for nature conservation integrated with socio-economic development in the region since 2003. After the 2010 flood, their prominence increased as Akarui members’ attachment to and knowledge about the territory, in addition to their technical expertise, led efforts to sustainable development of rural areas of the municipality. Akarui has carried out projects regarding socio-environmental characterisation, forest restoration, agro-ecological transition, pasture management and improvement of farmers’ income. The NGO is still working in the territory, currently expanding their initiatives to encompass environmental education and food security and sovereignty.

After the extreme events of 2010 (flood) and 2013/2014 (severe drought), more community members got interested in taking part in restoration projects, and a growing number are willing to adopt agro-ecological principles to their production chain. An Agenda 21 plan, built through participatory methods for the watershed, including guidelines for its sustainable development, is a featured product of Akuri. The NGO acknowledges rural communities as their main partners⁽²⁾.

Finally, another initiative named Rede para o Desenvolvimento Sustentável do Alto Paraíba (Upper Paraíba River Sustainable Development Network), or REDESUAPA, began their work after the 2010 floods. The network encompasses diverse stakeholders including local leaders, local and state government, local and regional NGOs and researchers, who met voluntarily in the municipality. In addition to project development, REDESUAPA created synergies among ongoing efforts and aimed at influencing public policy based on a systemic view of the territory, promoting ecological restoration, sustainable farming and community-based tourism. For instance, in 2016, REDESUAPA wrote an open letter addressed to the candidates running for Mayor asking for their commitment to priority guidelines for urban and rural sustainable development in the municipality. The network played a key role in the efforts to bring investments of a big project to the region, which is funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF). The Recovery and protection of climate and biodiversity services in the Paraíba do Sul Basin of the Atlantic Forest of Brazil project is based on Payments for Environmental Services (PES) and other incentives for sustainable land management and conservation in private lands. The members of REDESUAPA are still in touch with each other, but the network itself is on ‘standby mode’. However, the synergies created by REDESUAPA are reflected in a number of other initiatives concerning local development, conservation and ecological restoration.

^*The data and analysis on the social-ecological system of São Luiz and Catuçaba refer to the period 2012-2017. The authors acknowledge that changes have occurred in the system since then. Although they are not analysed here, we have added some information about the current situation, based on non-systematic observation.

Practical Outcomes

The development of initiatives is neither easy nor fast, but they have certainly been flourishing and creating arenas for community learning, empowerment, and development in São Luiz do Paraitinga (including Catuçaba). Although the 2010 flood was an important trigger to various initiatives, it is still unclear how successful they will be in terms of self-maintenance and mitigating the risk of floods in the future.

These bottom-up initiatives have valorized rural livelihoods and fostered opportunities for people to remain in rural areas. Inhabitants have been self-organizing to strengthen the Caipira identity, preserve local traditions (e.g., festivities and foods), and promote local development, with an overall understanding that their good quality of life depends on nature conservation⁽³⁾. Small, low-cost initiatives triggered improvements in the community capacity to organize and act collectively for a common goal⁽⁴⁾, although leadership and broader participation of community members in such initiatives remains a challenge.

Bridging organizations, such as NGOs and university teams, play a crucial role in linking local stakeholders with one another and with outside institutions (i.e. State Environmental authorities and funding agencies), facilitating learning opportunities, fundraising and providing access to technical advisory⁽¹⁾. In the course of creating environments where diverse local and outside stakeholders can interact and collaborate (Figure 4), the initiatives have generated a feedback loop, which is attracting more and more initiatives.

Figure 4: Caipira meeting in January 2017, where members of Catuçaba community and their external supporters discussed local development, nature and culture.

Until 2017, several stakeholders were joining efforts to work synergistically, for instance through REDESUAPA, to positively transform the region’s landscape at the watershed level. The efforts were benefitting from both bottom-up and top-down initiatives, taking into account both local knowledge and technical/scientific expertise, and involving stakeholders with different levels of political power. Above all, these efforts involve a diverse array of individuals who believe in a more sustainable and just society, and struggle year after year to accomplish their vision.

In face of socio-ecological change over the last decade, various community initiatives towards conservation and social development have emerged in São Luiz do Paraitinga^{(3, 4)}. Many tourism-related activities have been developing, especially those regarding ecotourism (e.g., farm hotels and rafting) and cultural tourism (e.g., religious, art and local food festivities). More recently, other community initiatives were established as local markets of agro-ecological products and craft fairs. After the 2010 floods, the municipality drew the attention of many governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) favouring the emergence of new environmental and social initiatives. The success of these initiatives has depended on population engagement and participation, as well as aligning to local demands and inherent dynamics of the local SES. The question ahead may be if and how these initiatives will thrive or perish in the long term, and which factors will determine their course.

References

Acknowledgements

We thank the population of São Luiz do Paraitinga and, in particular, of Catuçaba community, the NGO Akarui, and REDESUAPA for their commitment and availability for our projects. We also thank SSHRC/CCRN, CAPES, CNPq, PREAC/UNICAMP and FAPESP for funding. The project also received a strong support from our entire CGCommons Team (The Commons Conservation and Management group at University of Campinas, Brazil).

Paiche fish (Arapaima gigas)

The purpose of the book was to document existing fisheries as well as the expansion of introduced species, highlighting some of the associated challenges and opportunities and providing policy recommendations. While fisheries in the Bolivian Amazon make use of a high diversity of species and are an important aspect of livelihoods for thousands of rural families as well as urban-based commercial fishers, the sector is only recently receiving more attention in the form of developing regulations and institutional support frameworks. In a rapidly changing landscape of growing regional centres and transportation networks, newly recognized indigenous territories, increasing pressures from resource extraction industry, hydroelectric dam development, and extreme climate events such as floods, fisheries may contribute to sustainable development for communities, if appropriately managed. Fishery production overall is increasing and moving towards growing regional and national markets. The focus of commercial fisheries is shifting towards the introduced paiche (Arapaima gigas), a large bony-tongued fish of high commercial value but which is not commonly part of local diets. In Brazil, where it is native, and known as pirarucú, the fish has been the subject of significant overfishing resulting in fishery closures and more recently an impressive story of recovery through innovative community-based management. While paiche is not native to Bolivia, it has become an established fishery with a significant economic value, and there is interest in managing it for sustainable use in a way that is complementary with the conservation of native fish that are traditionally part of Amazon diets.

Alison led a chapter exploring diversified livelihoods in indigenous communities in the region and the role of fishing for native species and paiche. The research, carried out in collaboration with Faunagua, revealed some of the complexities of livelihood strategies in the region, where many communities live in remote rural locations, isolated from regional markets and social support services. Seasonal harvesting of non-timber forest products (mainly Brazil nuts) is the primary economic activity, while hunting, fishing, and smallholder agriculture are carried out mostly for subsistence purposes, with some occasional trade at the level of regional markets; this appears to be shifting towards greater connectivity and increasing participation in regional markets. Fish is a critical part of local diets and fishing is one of the main livelihood activities, but this value is not readily apparent when it is analyzed in terms of relative contribution to household income. Overall incomes are low and there are few established resource management plans. Despite the presence of paiche in the region, it’s not yet clear if the fish will be accessed by local communities to generate additional income and how it will be managed. Alison also contributed to two other chapters including a detailed survey of indigenous fisheries in the region, and together with Tiffanie and others, the formulation of recommendations for developing and improving the sustainability of the new paiche fishery, while conserving native fish resources that are a cornerstone of local food security and livelihoods. 

The book’s launch follows the recent approval (April 2017) of national-level legislation for fisheries and aquaculture in Bolivia. The new law represents the culmination of many years of work, including expert advice and extensive consultation with actors from all levels of fish value chains, facilitated in large part by Faunagua. Moving forward, policy and programs will be developed using a multi-level governance approach, considering regionally and locally appropriate regulation, management and development of fishery and aquaculture resources.  It is a socially and strategically important step, for the participatory nature of the development process, for improving the recognition and valuing of how fish and people involved in fisheries contribute to food security and sovereignty in Bolivia, and for strengthening protection for the country’s rich aquatic biodiversity (follow this link for more information). 

Tiffanie, now with World Fisheries Trust, is responsible for coordinating Canadian contributions with a focus on participatory research and locally appropriate solutions as part of the Peces para la vida project in Bolivia, supported by the Canadian International Food Security Research Fund.

Alison is one of the graduate students associated with the project, working under the joint supervision of Dr. Tony Charles (Saint Mary’s University) and Dr. Mark Flaherty (University of Victoria). Her research focuses on fishing as part of livelihoods, transformation and community development.

Currently in its 6^th year of implementation, Peces para la vida is a collaboration of Canadian and Bolivian organizations working together to support the contributions of fisheries and aquaculture to food security and improving livelihoods, with a focus on the economic empowerment of indigenous women and families in the Bolivian Amazon. Developing multi-stakeholder networks, strengthening local fisheries organizations, providing credit and financial tools, improving fish quality and regional fish value chains and markets, and new technology for sustainable aquaculture with native fish are among the strategies being developed and tested in partnership with local actors.  

View the complete CCRN’s Japan Community Story as a PDF

Mitsutaku Makino, Fisheries Research Agency of Japan; mmakino@affrc.go.jp

Key Messages

• Japan’s diverse climate produces a wide range of marine ecosystem types.
• Increasing urbanization throughout Japan has resulted in widespread conservation efforts of resources to protect lifestyle and traditional culture.
• Differences of the local culture dynamics can be linked to coastal ecosystem changes.

Community Introduction

Japan is an island country comprised of 4 large islands and thousands of smaller islands which stretch from Russia to the north and Taiwan and the Philippines to the South. Located at the middle latitudes in the northwestern Pacific, Japan is bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the east and the Sea of Japan to the west. Due to the ocean currents and climate conditions, Japan has wide-ranging marine ecosystems from sub-arctic to tropical (Figure 1).

Figure 1: study sites

With a population of approximately 127 million(1), land and resources are of high value and protecting these areas are of high priority. Although known for its urban development, Japan is home to many coastal, rural communities which rely on primary resource production for their livelihoods.

Conservation and Livelihood Challenges

Abashiri coast is sub-arctic, salt-water lake on the northern coast of the northern island of Hokkaido. Distant from big cities, it has a small population and relies heavily on large fisheries production. Due to the amount of fishing that takes place, sea grass and sand beach conservation is a top priority for the Abashiri community (Figure 2).

Figure 2: sea grass bed in Abashiri community

Tokyo-bay is a temperate, enclosed bay located in Tokyo, on the largest island of Honshu. This area is highly industrialized with a huge nearby population. Especially over the last 60 years, urban development has increased as new residents move into the area, putting further strain on the already at-risk resources. As a result, locals have taken action in order to protect and restore the sea grass beds and their traditional seafood culture (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Tokyo Bay

Hiroshima suburb is a temperate, inland sea located in the Hiroshima prefecture on the western side of the largest island, Honshu. Distant from big cities and with a decreasing population, sea grass bed conservation (Figure 4) is very important to the traditional sea grass culture that is vanishing in the region.

Figure 4: Hiroshima Suburb

Ishigaki Island is a tropical lagoon. It is a remote island southwest of the 4 main island located close to Taiwan. Coral reefs and sea grasses are at risk due to an increasing population and a fast growing tourism industry (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Ishikagi coral reef

Shiretoko is a sub-arctic ecosystem located in the most northeastern part of the northern island of Hokkaido. Recently gaining status as a World Heritage Site, locals are concerned with how the management and conservation of this site impacts their traditional fishing lifestyle (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Shiretoko fishing community

Community Initiative

The coastal ecosystem conservation activities conducted by the local communities are part of a comparative analysis study that explores and discusses the differences of the SES conditions that each community experiences, and their influence to the nature of community conservation. The comparative study seeks to:
1) Develop integrated diagrams of coastal ecosystem functions, services, uses, and stakeholders, by collaboration with local officers and local ecosystem researchers in the different sites (Figure 7).

2) Conduct stakeholder interviews asking their interests, activities, concerns, conflicts, etc., and develop Stakeholder Tables. Also, important statistics relating to the above stakeholders are collected.

Figure 7: summary of the ecosystem functions, ecosystem service uses and stakeholders (case of Abashiri)

3) Based on above, conduct a comparative analysis among the sites, with special emphasis on the governance, meanings and motivations in each site.

Practical Outcomes

Meanings and motivations for conservation are dependent on the local culture for the ecosystem service uses. In other words, the meanings and motivations are reflecting the local way of living in harmony with t      he coastal ecosystems.

• In Abashiri, local people have a strong fisheries-oriented culture, and the culture is still at the very core of the local motivations and meanings for conservation.
• In Hiroshima, seagrass is deeply linked to the local traditional lifestyle, but the community itself is diminishing now.
• In Ishigaki, the traditional coral reef culture is surviving, but the population and the tourism industry is growing very fast.
• In Tokyo, the traditional lifestyle was almost totally destroyed, but local people (mainly the new residents) are very proud of the local seafood culture.
• In Shiretoko, engaging in consistent interactions and incorporating local-ecological knowledge provided some successes between management authorities and local communities.

We found that such differences in local culture dynamics can be linked to coastal ecosystem changes. In Tokyo bay, the coastal ecosystem was almost totally destroyed, and the objective of the conservation was the revival of traditional lifestyle and culture. In Abashiri, on the opposite case, the coastal ecosystem has remained relatively unchanged, and their only objective/motivation is resource sustainability and productivity.

The comparative analyses shows that with higher biodiversity, we will have more diverse use-types and stakeholders, more conflicts, so more public initiatives are important for community conservation activities. Also, the dynamics of ecosystem and cultural changes are synchronized, and the meanings/motivations for local conservation activities are linked to those dynamics.

These relationships among the social system conditions, ecological system conditions, and the nature of the community conservation activities, should be properly incorporated when designing the conservation activities in specific areas. There is no one-fit-all approach when it comes to conservation

References

1. World Bank. 2013. Japan. From http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=2&country=JPN&series=&period

Acknowledgements

This research is being carried out with the aid of a Doctoral Research Award from the Canadian International Development Research Centre, a doctoral award from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada, a SSHRC grant held by Dr. Derek Armitage as part of a Coastal-Marine Transformation Project, and support from the SSHRC-funded Community Conservation Research Network (CCRN).

See below for the Japanese language abstract for this community story, “網走、知床、東京湾、広島、石垣、日本：沿岸生態系の保全を実践ファイブコミュニティ.”

View the complete CCRN’s Clayoquot Sound Community Story as a PDF

Tawney Lem,  West Coast Aquatic; tawney@westcoastaquatic.ca

Key Messages

• In order to sustain livelihoods and conserve biodiversity, decision-making must be integrated; that is, ecosystem based, with the participation of all affected interests, and inclusive of indigenous, local, and scientific knowledge.

• Co-management Roundtables have been a successful tool in bringing parties together to discuss their salmon management concerns. An online marine ecosystem reference guide is being developed for Barkley and Clayoquot Sounds to support integrated decision-making.

• The desire to benefit from economic opportunity can be the common ground for successful indigenous and non-indigenous community collaboration and partnership.

Community Introduction

West Coast Aquatic’s geographic scope reflects the ‘Ha-houlthee’ (territorial wealth) of fifteen Nuu-chah-nulth First Nations. Stretching approximately 300 kilometers along the West Coast of Vancouver Island (WCVI), from Brooks Peninsula northwest of Kyuquot Sound to southeast of Sheringham Point including Port Renfrew, this area is a unique and rich marine ecosystem that provides food, energy, economic opportunity, water, culture, tourism, recreation, biotechnology, transportation routes, and knowledge to residents, Canadians, and the international community.

Figure 1: Map of Clayoquot Sound (Photo Credit: West Coast Aquatic “Coastal Strategy”, 2012)

The WCVI offers countless opportunities for every type of activity, including: fishing in Port Alberni (named by the World Fishing Network as the “Ultimate Fishing Town” in 2010); outdoor activities such as kayaking in the pristine Broken Group island and hiking Della Falls, the tallest waterfalls in Canada at 1443 feet; and viewing a diverse amount of wildlife. Fishing areas on the WCVI (Clayoquot, Barkley and Nootka) account for three of the top four areas in the Pacific with the highest landed value per hectare(1). There are a number of finfish, shellfish, and marine plant aquaculture operations in the area, producing over 20% of BC’s total aquaculture volume.

The Clayoquot Sound, a sub-region of WCVI, is home to the Ahousaht, Tla-o-qui-aht and Hesquiaht First Nations. Extending from Estevan Point on Hesquiaht Peninsula in the north to Pacific Rim National Park Reserve in the south, it encompasses lush rainforests, magnificent beaches, and several large islands including Flores, Vargas and Meares. Clayoquot Sound is the largest area of ancient temperate rainforest left on Vancouver Island. Marine species and wildlife thrive in this region of ancient forests, where trees can grow to over 15 feet in diameter and as old as 1,500 years. Clayoquot Sound is considered to be one of the most spectacular wilderness areas on the continent and has been declared a United Nations Biosphere Reserve.

Conservation and Livelihood Challenges

Despite the region having tremendous natural assets and opportunities, the area also faces significant challenges. In the mid-1990s, leaders from the West Coast of Vancouver Island came together to discuss key issues: declining fish stocks and increased species at risk; pollution; lack of coastal community access to adjacent resources; unresolved First Nations title, rights, and reconciliation; increased debt and declining funding; lack of governance credibility; social problems; climate change; marine hazards; invasive species; conflicting coastal uses; and food security. The leaders came to the conclusion that there was not one single cause, and not one single cure. Everything is connected. To affect change, a collective effort was required and the West Coast Vancouver Island Aquatic Management Board (now known as ‘West Coast Aquatic’) was born.

Since the mid-1990s, the area has seen some notable advancements: conflicts have decreased; collaboration has increased; rights and title have gained some definition through a treaty and ongoing court cases; risk assessments guide stewardship work; and multi-sector governance models continue to evolve. However, communities continue their efforts to: increase local benefit from resource use; build struggling fishery stocks; preserve the local culture of artisanal and sustenance fishing; and diversify the economy, amongst other issues.

Meanings & Motivations
Viewing the actions of its partners, West Coast Aquatic understands resource conservation in the region to mean sustainable use with respect (iisaak) and active stewardship. Conservation is different from preservation, a term that carries a stigma in the region as being related to those who “say no to everything”. In the past, the region has seen significant conflict between sectors. However, some long-time adversaries are now working together, and long held perspectives are changing as opportunities increase for open dialogue around critical questions. Protocols between First Nations and the aquaculture industry in Clayoquot Sound is a good example.

Community based resource users are conservation motivated by the increasing volume of resource use benefits that are leaving the communities (e.g. a large number of fishing licenses are held by a few corporations), but the environmental impacts are largely felt by those inside the communities. There is an interest in having the inclusion of local knowledge improve decision-making and increasing local benefits.

These users are also interested in giving back to/supporting the resource that is at the heart of their businesses/sport, as they don’t want to lose economic and/or recreational opportunity. Many community based resource users are also multi-generational. They want to continue what their families have done for years, and hope to pass on the practice to their children.

The motivations of First Nations include: regaining their traditional roles of stewardship and management; ensuring the environment can support the full exercise of aboriginal rights and economic aspirations; having management reflect traditional values of hishuk ish tsawalk (everything is one, taking care of the resources is taking care of ourselves and vice versa); and wanting local/traditional knowledge to improve decision making.

Local governments are motivated by the desire to change the perception of what their towns’ identities represent (not just resource economies). Several governments in the regional district are looking to reinvent their brand, and healthy ecosystems are needed to support their new image (e.g. tourism).

Community Initiative

Recognizing the size and interconnected nature of these issues, local groups created West Coast Aquatic as a forum to pool resources and work towards collective solutions. The formation of West Coast Aquatic was right around the same time that Canada passed the Oceans Act (1997), one of the first pieces of national legislation to recognize emerging challenges in oceans and coastal health and also aimed at mandating collective action.

In this context, West Coast Aquatic set out to produce an integrated strategy to improve the health and wealth of the west coast of Vancouver Island. Through interviews with over 700 organizations and individuals, the Coastal Strategy was developed. Central to the strategy is bringing together knowledge from different sources about the West Coast of Vancouver Island area to create a common understanding of what is happening, why, and what needs to be done.

Governance Related to Challenges Being Addressed
West Coast Aquatic provides several consensus-based forums for involving First Nations and other local communities in decision-making. These include a Governance Board that makes policy recommendations to government, and multi-sector roundtables for salmon management. The Governance Board includes representatives from all levels of government, Nuu-chah-nulth First Nations, and all sectors with an interest in aquatic resource management (e.g. commercial fishing, aboriginal fishing, recreational & sport fishing, aquaculture, environment, processing, labour, tourism & recreation, marine transportation and forestry) (see Figure 2). The Salmon Roundtables include representatives from the Federal Government, Nuu-chah-nulth First Nations, all salmon fishing sectors, and stewardship organizations.

Figure 2: Collaborative, consensus-based governance (Photo Credit: Tawney Lem)

Both the Governance Board and Roundtables incorporate diverse tools and methods (including the Nuu-chah-nulth management principles of hishuk ish tsawalk and iisaak, values based discussion, and consensus) for truly representative and collaborative decision-making that produces lasting results. Through inclusive representation, the Governance Board and Roundtables empower users and groups to have more authority over managing the resources in their communities.

Monitoring and Evaluation of Outcomes
Monitoring of West Coast Aquatic’s work is done both formally and informally. The Governance Board has set four strategic priorities: collaborative governance, ecosystem approach, access to resources, and stewardship. For each priority, outcomes, outputs, activities and indicators are developed that are guided by the Coastal Strategy. At the end of each year, the Governance Board reviews areas of success and opportunities for advancement in the coming year. Some of the outcomes that are monitored include:

Governance:
• Improvement in the quality and inclusiveness of marine resource based decisions.
• Reduction in the potential for conflicts between users.

Ecosystem Approach:
• Marine Ecosystem Reference Guide recommendations are harmonized with government advisory processes.
• Marine Ecosystem Reference Guide information is accessible, up-to-date, and is factored into the development and review of applications.
• Planning is ecosystem based.

Access to Resources:
• Improved community access to seafood.
• Expanded economic diversity and activities, and increased economic stability.

Stewardship:
• Areas that are integral to marine ecosystem health and abundance are protected.
• Stewardship actions of resource users are increased.

For the Roundtables’, the Terms of Reference and goals are reviewed annually, and a post-season evaluation is conducted by all Roundtable participants to assess the success of the harvest plans. Feedback is then incorporated during joint development of the coming year’s plans.

Practical Outcomes

Since 2001, the West Coast Aquatic Governance Board has maintained the participation by all governments, First Nations and sectors. Recently, the Terms of Reference was amended so that the appointment of First Nations’ representatives was more reflective of the First Nations’ governance structures. This has increased the number of First Nations’ seats from two to eight, and this is anticipated to increase their connection to the Governance Board.

Access to resources and community benefit from resource use are two important issues for the Governance Board. WCVI fishers continue to struggle with the impacts of the Pacific Salmon Treaty, which has led to a 52% reduction in Chinook catch and 28% reduction in the regional troll fleet. This has the potential to profoundly change trolling as an economic component of coastal livelihoods and as a historic aspect of the fishing industry.

West Coast Aquatic is facilitating discussions between troll groups with the goal of bringing a consensus proposal to the Federal government on the use of the remaining Chapter 3 (Chinook) mitigation fund, and is also hosting WCVI wide discussions so community interests can be documented and included in the negotiations of a new version of the Pacific Salmon Treaty.

One action item identified in the Coastal Strategy was the need for marine spatial planning. The goal was to be able to assess the intersection between activities and values, thereby promoting the conservation of significant ecological, cultural and social values as the ‘right activities are matched to the right location’.

Over a three-year period, West Coast Aquatic embarked on an extensive process with its community partners to conduct extensive interviews that documented new knowledge, verify existing information through community experts, and carry out modeling using the Marine InVEST and Marxan models. Another year was spent gathering additional feedback through sector and public review sessions.

After thoughtful discussions about West Coast Aquatic’s role, and in order to ensure that the authority of decision makers was maintained, it has been decided that the end product of these efforts is not a “plan”, but more of a resource that will guide ecosystem based decision making that is inclusive of indigenous, local, and scientific knowledge (Figure 3). The 300 data layers and associated decision-making recommendations will be available online in an interactive platform later in 2016.

The salmon Roundtables continue and have been cited up and down the coast as a successful model and regional solution that can contribute towards the federal government’s mandate to “work with provinces, territories, Indigenous Peoples, and other stakeholders to better co-manage our three oceans.”(1) Based on the success of the salmon Roundtables, discussions continue on the potential of using the Roundtable model for the management of other species.

Figure 3: Community-Based Planning (Photo Credit: West Coast Aquatic staff)

West Coast Aquatic also facilitated the Pacific Rim Education and Tourism Committee through a year of research and strategy development on Education Tourism opportunities for four central west coast communities. Agreeing on the viability of the opportunity, communities are now inviting other communities and several strategic partners to join them in the implementation phase that will be led by the Clayoquot Biosphere Trust. While a new economic opportunity is progress in itself, perhaps the even greater success was having two indigenous and two non-indigenous communities form a partnership around a common interest.

Next Steps:
Within the Marine Ecosystem Reference Guide (tentative name, previously known as the Marine Spatial Plan), ecologically significant areas (ESA) were identified. Currently, 31% of the Clayoquot Sound is formally protected, however another 28% has been identified as being ecologically significant. As the next step, West Coast Aquatic will initiate a multi-sector engagement process that investigates what conservation measures (e.g. ranging from protocols through to formal marine protected areas) might be desirable and effective for the new ESAs. This initiative can also contribute towards the federal government’s mandate of “increasing the proportion of Canada’s marine and coastal areas that are protected to five percent by 2017, and ten percent by 2020”(1).

On the ground monitoring was initiated in the Clayoquot Sound based on data gaps identified in the Chinook Risk Assessment (e.g. water quality, temperature, pH, and alkalinity). The next major undertaking will be the development of a comprehensive monitoring program to ensure that goals in the Coastal Strategy are being met, and that use of the Marine Ecosystem Reference Guide is in fact leading to the desired conservation goals. A series of workshops will be held to identify what monitoring is already taking place, what indicators are most meaningful for communities, and which partners will take on the implementation of monitoring which indicators

References

1. Office of the Prime Minister. 2015. Minister of Fisheries, Oceans and the Canadian Coast Guard mandate letter.

Acknowledgements

West Coast Aquatic recognizes that our work would not be possible without the generous participation and contribution of many knowledgeable First Nations, community organizations, non-governmental organizations, government ministries and departments, academics, and community members.

Thank you to the CCRN for its financial support, which has been directed towards community engagement and capacity building. We are grateful to the Alberni Clayoquot Regional District for their grants towards the core of our organization, the West Coast Aquatic Governance Board. And, the ability to facilitate the salmon Roundtables is due to the Pacific Integrated Commercial Fisheries Initiative (PICFI) Co-management Element.
West Coast Aquatic also extends special appreciation to the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation for its commitment to marine conservation, and for generously funding the development of the Coastal Strategy and Marine Ecosystem Reference Guide.

This research is being carried out with the aid of a Doctoral Research Award from the Canadian International Development Research Centre, a doctoral award from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada, a SSHRC grant held by Dr. Derek Armitage as part of a Coastal-Marine Transformation Project, and support from the SSHRC-funded Community Conservation Research Network (CCRN).